martes, 25 de julio de 2023

Introduction Creativity - Part 3

 

In this post, I continue developing the Introductory Principles to Creativity.

Thematic index:

 1. Techniques to develop creativity. Part I.

        1.1. Barriers and blocks to creativity.

        1.2. Creative techniques.

 

1. Techniques to develop creativity.

  Creative methods are deliberate procedures for solving heuristic problems. Their objective is to stimulate creativity to find newer and more valuable results. They seek to reduce or eliminate the barriers and blocks that limit our imagination and the generation of original thoughts.

 1.1. Barriers and blocks to creativity.

 It is usual that, on many occasions, we feel difficulties in generating creative ideas. If in a social or work meeting we are asked to present original thoughts on a subject in question, it can happen that our response is limited and, in some situations, almost non-existent, evidencing a total block. The origin of these barriers was analyzed, concluding that they arise for different reasons. Given the bio-psycho-social structure of the human being, the barriers were grouped into three categories: neurological, psychological and cultural.

 Neurological barriers.

We have defined creativity as a human capacity, therefore, like other capacities, it is a component of the personality that can be developed, with neurological bases and social characteristics. Various theories have been proposed that relate the brain structure to creativity, among them: the theory of hemispheric asymmetry vs. that of the whole brain, that of phylogenetic evolution, and that of the triune brain. The latter is the one that we will develop to explain the relationship between blocks in neurological activity and creativity.

Three large compartments are usually differentiated in the human brain that would derive from three evolutionary stages. Paul MacLean, categorized these structures: a reptilian system related to instinctive life; the limbic system referring to affective and emotional processes and the neocortex, which is the most modern, where intellectual capacity is located. Although they are chemically and structurally different, they make up a category of three brains in one, in complex interaction, defined as the "triune brain or triple brain."

 - The oldest component of the brain is called the reptilian complex -instinctive-, whose objective is physical survival and maintenance of the body -autonomic functions: breathing, heartbeat, etc.-. Its function is physical action, such as motor reactions in the present, with two types of response: attack or defense directing the movements of approach and distance. The hypothalamus prepares the body for actions of great physical effort in a moment, sending signals to the heart to accelerate the pulse and to the digestive system the suspension of said process, before an energy requirement of the motor muscles. Evaluate the known as safe and the unknown as dangerous. The characteristics of the behaviors of this complex are automaticity, ritual quality, and resistance to change.

 - The limbic-emotional system or complex is the second evolutionary stage, and includes the primary centers of emotion. It brings together the amygdala, which associates events with emotions, and the hippocampus, which transforms information into long-term memory and participates in its retrieval. With the appearance of this brain begins the possibility of learning and memorizing new responses to use them in similar situations, when processing present and past experiences. It acts as a second filter of the information we obtain, classifying the stimuli into two groups: pain or pleasure. The first negative for the balance of human needs, and vice versa. Unlike the reptilian complex, the limbic system is adaptable and accepts new situations, which it will evaluate under its pain-pleasure duality, proceeding to store this new relationship in memory.

 - The neocortex -rational-, is the last evolutionary stage of the brain, representing 85% of the brain mass. It is responsible for performing higher functions: cognition, language, advanced thinking, reasoning, abstraction, planning future experiences, and creativity through imagination. In this component of the brain, novelties are generated and it is the most open to its acceptance. It is activated after the two previous systems. Its action is slower and requires a high energy consumption.

 Faced with a novel stimulus, our brain presents different reactions, the reptilian component could reject it, the limbic component would analyze it under its pain-pleasure relationship, while the neocortex could accept it. Consequently, the different parts of the brain enter into dialogue, in a sequence that demands energy to process a greater amount of information than if the task were repetitive.

The human brain, which only weighs 1.5 kg, is the organ that demands the most energy, and our system –like that of other beings- is programmed to save energy, maintaining enough reserves with which to attack or flee in risky situations. Therefore, it is usual to "fall" into the comfort zone that leads us to the "status quo", reiterating our actions without making an effort to develop creativity.

Next we will analyze the psychological blocks.

 Psychological blocks.

The novelties and the alternatives of change generate uncertainty, as well as a greater possibility of making mistakes; and people, in general, we are afraid of making a mistake. There is fear of ridicule, criticism and being rejected by the environment. Faced with the unknown, there are fears of making mistakes and failing, derived from the potential mistakes that can be made and that would affect the personal image before others; losing power, recognition and/or compensation.

The characteristic of creative people is openness to new experiences, on the contrary, the most recognized psychological blocks derive from the fear of experimenting with novelty. People who are more averse to new experiences will have a lower capacity to generate original ideas.

Another group of psychological barriers is related to the limitations in the capacities to “build” creative products: difficulty to define and/or understand the true problem; to combine or recombine the constituent elements; Analyze and observe the issue from different points of view.

 Below are the ideas of Roger von Oech and Charles H. Clark regarding phrases that are reiterated in society reaffirming blocks against creativity.

The ten mental obstacles to creativity by Roger Von Oech

1) We need to give correct and unique answers as a product of educational systems – what counts are the answers and not knowing how to ask questions.

2) Excessive use of logical thinking.

3) Rigidity of the rules, they must be followed and never broken.

4) Be practical, put fantasies aside.

5) Avoid ambiguity. Doubt is not useful.

6) To be wrong is wrong.

7) Playing is frivolous.

8) That is not my area, misunderstood hyperspecialization.

9) Fear of ridicule.

10) Thinking that you are not creative.

“Killer phrases” from the creativity of Charles H. Clark in his book: Brainstorming

It will not work

too old

In production they will not accept it

we don't have staff

we have already tried

we are not ready yet

You will never sell it to management

It is too early

It's going to mean more work

we are too small

You don't understand our problem

The union will protest

It's not in the manual

It doesn't work in our industry.

So that? if we are making money

Too academic

We don't have time

too modern

Engineering can't do it.

Not in the budget

If it was that good they would have done it already.

we have never done it like this

It's not our problem

It's too late

Will increase costs

It is not for a big company like this

We have too many projects now

The regulations do not allow it.

Better present it in writing

Our sales continue to rise

It's not in our plans

No one should tell me how to run my business

 Finally, the cultural barriers to creativity will be analyzed.

 Cultural barriers.

In the first place, I consider it interesting to define what is the meaning that we are going to apply to the word “culture”?

Javier Gomá lists four of its uses: as cultural policy, as cultural industries, as a work [1] and finally culture as Image and interpretation.

We now use the concept of culture in the latter sense, identifying, for example, that Italian culture and Japanese culture are different, since even though there are common elements, no one doubts that an Italian and a Japanese belong to separate cultures. The customs, languages, traditions, lifestyles, rules and social norms of coexistence are different. Within the various cultures (and subcultures within a region) some present characteristics of greater openness to change and vice versa.

The different societies have given structures of rules and norms of coexistence, before which social researchers are interested in analyzing their emergence, the conditions under which they are modified and, in particular, their functioning; the degree of rigidity/flexibility and the guidelines for compliance by its members.

Cultural barriers to creativity derive from established norms that prevent the possibilities of change, and/or where novelties are considered socially negative; They are also characterized by their intolerance to the broad concept of the “different other”. The first social researchers assumed that these structures -explicit or implicit- that govern social behaviors, are external to the individual and would have a coercive power that would lead to adapt actions to what is socially expected, convenient and/or due[2].

Meanwhile, researchers attached to interpretative methodologies, of a microsocial order, focus on the social action of the agent. Authors such as Dilthey, Tarde, Simmel, Weber, Schütz, Mead, Hayek, will emphasize the motivations and intentions of human interaction, based on a concept of a greater degree of freedom in daily behavior. According to interpretative authors, creative agents interact through social media, and have the ability to gradually modify current norms.

The observable trend in the societies of the last centuries is, the one assumed by this second group of authors, towards greater degrees of freedom to make the structures of rules and social norms more flexible, derived from the increasing empowerment of individuals. Tolerance and coexistence with the broad vision of "the different other" increases substantially on average, although with a very wide dispersion among the different cultures.

  Phobias and Philias

Social phobias and affiliations are barriers to creativity, which have been studied in a multidisciplinary way. Two examples will be discussed:

An interesting case is technophobia. The so-called Luddite rebellions originated in England in 1812. Faced with the appearance of technological innovation, represented by industrial looms, artisans tried to destroy them, considering that they would eliminate their trade. This type of debate has been going on for more than two centuries and is currently related to the fear of the impact on labor markets that the increasing use of Artificial Intelligence could have.

A second example is the study of neophobia and neophilia referring to food consumption habits. Analyze the reasons for acceptance or rejection of new foods in different cultures. Human beings are omnivorous, since they can and need to eat different foods, but there is no culture that eats all that is available. In this regard, we can ask ourselves, how many times have we eaten snails or frogs? and how many insects or monkey meat? Acceptance responses to new foods will vary according to their culture of belonging.

 Species and products of animal proteins and fats commonly consumed in 383 Cultures

 

                             Specie

Number of Cultures

Chicken (meat and eggs)

363

Cattle (meat and milk)

196

Pig (domestic)

180

Fish

159

Lamb

108

Duck

67

Zebu (mainly milk)

49

Turtle (meat and eggs)

46

Zebu (meat and milk)

43

Dog

42

Rat

42

Source: Abrams, 1987.

1.2. Creative techniques.

 In this section, different methods will be presented that allow the creative processes to be energized. According to M. Fustier in his work "Pedagogy of creativity" they are classified into three groups:

- Analog methods: they look for the solution to a problem through its similarity with the positive response that has been verified in a different field. These connections between the different areas are generated by similarities and imagination.

- Antithetical methods: different conceptions are sought through discontinuous pathways of thought that lead to restructuring and unknown alternatives. It is based on doubt and criticism, leaving aside existing convictions or values. They are based on antithesis, difference, opposition, negation, distortion, utopia. They combine elements of opposition, they look for the opposite to all similarity, eg: brainstorming.

- Random methods: they consist of finding artificial, random and forced relationships between the known and the unknown.

 In different creativity techniques, as a first step, some "warm-up" exercises or, perhaps better said, "pre-creativity" are usually carried out. Usually, short and simple practices related to fluency are used.

 For example:

Mention in one minute all the names of women and men you know, beginning with the letter C.

Here are some warm-up exercises.

 1.2.1. Previous exercises for the "warm-up"

Based on Guilford's research, referring to the characteristics of creative people, a significant number of tests were designed with the aim of evaluating their different profiles. Within these characteristics the aptitudes of: fluency, flexibility and originality were usual. The first and third present in the list enunciated by Gowan, Demos and Torrance, previously cited.

Fluency aptitude is related to the speed of response and, therefore, to the quantity of options provided, rather than to their quality and originality. Being the ability to generate many ideas quickly, it allows providing a greater number of solutions to situations or problems.

Flexibility is related to the ability to find different perspectives and points of view to analyze problems. It can be spontaneous, arising freely and instinctively; or adaptive result of a deliberate process for new approaches.

Originality is the ability to give ingenious and innovative ideas and proposals. Its feasibility depends on breaking established schemes, ideas or rigid models.

 Based on the idea of ​​tests to measure these aptitudes, I introduce a substantial modification, generating a set of "warm-up" exercises as variants. We will then give way to the practice phase of individual and group creativity techniques.

 Below I suggest you carry out three groups of activities related to this topic, with which you can practice or put into practice in your surroundings. These are illustrative activities

ACTIVITY 1: Fluency practice. First of all, I propose to list functions for a product:

a) In three minutes, write: All the functions that you can think of to assign to a key. For example: open and close a safe.

Second substitutes for that product:

b) In three minutes, write: For each of the functions that you mentioned in the previous exercise, what other goods and/or services would be performed by it as a substitute?

Thirdly, I suggest that you think about the complementary goods of a product:

c) In three minutes, write: Where would you put a self-adhesive label.

 ACTIVITY 2a: Flexibility practice.

The challenge is to join the 9 points of the graph, with 4 lines without lifting the pencil from the paper:

 

 

ACTIVITY 2b: Flexibility practice.

What is the number of the parking space occupied by the car ?

 

I6

06

68

88






98

 ACTIVITY 2c: Flexibility practice.

You are evaluating the purchase of a car, reflect and write down the three main factors that would decide your purchase in the following scenarios.

a) Current.

b) You are a person of the other gender.

c) You lose your job.

d) You are 30 years older than your current age.

 ACTIVITY 3a: Originality practice.

The NGO "Save Antarctica" has occupied it and has proclaimed the Republic of Antarctica, with the aim of preserving its environment and preventing any country from making economic use of its resources. The ice hockey team of this new republic is going to participate in the Winter Olympics. He has entrusted our consulting firm with the following work:

- Design the flag and coat of arms of the republic.

- Write the lyrics of the hymn.

- Design the starting and substitute kit for the hockey team.

Keep in mind that all designs should convey the message of the NGO.

 ACTIVITY 3b: Originality practice.

My cousin is going to open an urban bar-restaurant in a neighborhood of medium-medium socioeconomic level, where both people and their pets can eat healthy homemade food. You have asked us to:

- Propose the name for your business.

- Design the poster for the establishment.

- Design the graphic presentation of the menu.

- Finally, as you know of our fondness for cooking, that we propose a recipe for a "star dish" that people and their pets can share.

 1.2.2. Techniques to develop creativity.

They are deliberate procedures whose purpose is to reduce or eliminate the blocks that inhibit the expression of our creativity, stimulating through their search the development of creative results.

In point 1.2. The three groups of methods to dynamize the creative processes presented by M. Fustier were introduced: analogical, antithetical and random.

  Within this broad set of existing techniques, those referring to: analogies, forced relationships, six thinking hats will be presented. Then, in the fourth and last post of this Introductory series, a practical case of creativity by interaction will be detailed where individual and group brainwriting, SCAMPER and brainstorming techniques have been used.

 Method of analogies.

According to the Royal Spanish Academy, analogy is defined as: "...relationship of similarity between different things and reasoning based on the existence of similar attributes in different beings or things..."

Try to solve problems looking for the possible solution in the application of an observed similarity as a positive answer to another case. Leonardo Da Vinci had studied in detail the flight of birds, in order to design wings that would allow the human being to fly.

Analogy is one of the most used techniques to develop creativity and generate ideas . It is intended to use the solutions previously obtained in product B, whatever their nature, to apply it to the problem that has arisen with product A. Another example: study the properties of shark skin to develop a new type of swimsuit for high competition. The company that has developed the product presents it under the phrase: Biomimetics: designed by nature, perfected by Speedo.

 In creativity, we use analogies when:

• We relate our creative problem to elements from other fields or disciplines.

• We compare between two problems, ideas, people, and more interesting the further apart they are.

• We find similarities between two products even when they have many differences.

• We are motivated to imagine the merger of two products, at first sight incompatible.

    This method of analogies has given rise to several particular creativity techniques, among which we can mention:

Synectics. William Gordon, created synectics, based on the use of analogies: "... It is a question of paralleling by means of this method some facts, some knowledge, or some different disciplines...". The synectic concept, of Greek origin, means "...union of different and apparently irrelevant elements..."

He differentiated four types of analogies:

• Personal: it refers to empathizing personally with the subject under analysis: What would happen if I were a dental clinic? How would I feel if it was a baby stroller?

• Direct: “…We will study the anatomy of a bird's wings together with the muscles of the breast, which are the motors of those…” wrote Leonardo da Vinci in one of his notebooks. For more than two decades he studied the flight of birds to design machines that would allow human beings to fly. It is the transfer of solutions from other environments that have solved problems similar to ours: Motivation of the groups of my company with the assistance of successful group sports coaches.

• Symbolic: consists of making definitions from remote associations. It is used in the field of storytelling. I want to redecorate a country hotel and think of Henry David Thoreau's essay; or in impressionist paintings.

• Fantastic: relate our wishes and dreams with the problem to be dealt with. I take the problem to an ideal world without restrictions. For example We feed ourselves with a cream that we apply to our hands and that the action of solar energy transforms into the necessary nutrients for a complete diet. Another possibility, we dematerialize the food, only its odors remain in vapors and we feed ourselves with the sense of smell only.

  Method of forced relations or random words.

It is a random method that is often used to modify existing products or processes. It allows mental blocks to be overcome and, as in other cases, its practice in a group way entails the suppression of all kinds of criticism of the proposed judgments.

M.T. Mednik, supported the associationist theory of creativity. He considered creative thinking as an association between elements that, the more distant it is, the more possibility of generating more creative results. For this reason, the combination between the known and the unknown is promoted or forced, to obtain more original products.

The known concept refers to our problem and we must look for distant words that open possibilities of solving it.

 We will obtain distant concepts randomly and they will provide us with a set of contents that will open new lines of thought, forcing our mind to find possible relationships with our problem.

 This method promotes: "...stretching ties to the imagination to jump between concepts..." (De la Torre, S. 1995)

 The technique begins with choosing a word at random, using a dictionary, book, or random term generator from the web.

From that word, characteristics related to it are detailed. Suppose the randomly obtained term is brown. Below it, the set of contents are written, which are all the characteristics that arise spontaneously: granules, aroma, hot, single-dose capsules, etc.

Next, a column is generated to the right of the word coffee, which contains the term that symbolizes our problem. For example, our company makes shampoo and the marketing department needs to further differentiate our product in the market. Therefore, under shampoo, in correspondence with each of the characteristics stated for coffee, we force a relationship. Can we make granulated shampoo? Would it be interesting to make it hot? Would it be useful to do it in a single dose?

In this way we will generate a number of new ideas potentially applicable to the problem. In a second phase, those considered most innovative and valuable, as well as technologically and economically feasible, will be selected.

 Method of the six hats to think.

 This technique is used to analyze a decision from different approaches or perspectives. Therefore, an exercise is carried out that forces us to change the habitual way of thinking and helps us to form different visions of a situation. It can be practiced individually or in a group, in the latter case, each participant would be given a hat with a different color. Then they change so that all the participants reflect according to the six different colors.

 “…The greatest enemy of thought is complexity, because it leads to confusion.

When thought is clear and simple it is more pleasant and effective. The concept of the six thinking hats is very simple. Its use is also very simple.

The concept of the six thinking hats has two central purposes.

The first is to simplify thought, allowing the thinker to try one thing after another. Instead of dealing with emotions, logic, information, hope, and creativity at the same time, the thinker can deal with them separately. Instead of using logic to half disguise an emotion, the thinker can bring said emotion to the surface through the red hat and without the need to justify it. The black thinking hat can then deal with the logical aspect.

The second central purpose of the six thinking hats is to allow for variation in thinking. A person who in the course of a meeting has been continuously negative, can be asked to remove the "black hat". This signals to the person that you are being persistently negative. This person can also be asked to put on "the yellow hat." This is a direct request that it be positive. In this way, the six hats provide a language that, without being offensive, is precise. Most importantly, this language does not threaten the subject's ego or personality. It becomes acting or even a game. The six hats allow you to be asked to think in certain ways..." Eduardo de Bono (1988, p.92)

We can use this technique, for example, in meetings or in our own decisions. In meetings they have the benefit of avoiding the confrontations that often occur when people with different ways of thinking discuss the same problem.

 Each Hat is a different style of thought:

White Hat: Neutral Role

With this thought we must focus on the available data. It implies neutrality and objective conduct. See the information we have and see what we can learn from it. Pay attention to the gaps in our knowledge about the situation, and try to fill it in or at least take account of them. This is when we can analyze past trends and extrapolate them with historical data.

Red Hat: Emotional Role

It suggests emotions, feelings and non-rational aspects. Putting on the red hat, we can see the problems using intuition, inner reaction, and emotion.

Black Hat: Negative Role

It covers the negative, pessimistic aspects; using it we can see all the bad points of a decision. Watch them carefully and defensively. Trying to analyze why it might not work. This is important because it highlights the weak points of a plan. The black hat is one of the real benefits of using this technique - many successful people tend to always think positively, which often means they can't see problems ahead of time. This leaves them unprepared for difficulties.

 Yellow Hat: Optimistic Role

It is the optimistic vision, the yellow hat will help us to think positively. It is the constructive point of view that contributes to the analysis of the benefits of a decision and its value.

Green Hat: Divergent Role

The green hat corresponds to creativity and new ideas. This is when we can develop creative solutions to a problem. It is a free form of thought in which there is little or no room for criticism. It generates provocation to get out of the habitual patterns of thought.

 Blue Hat: Organizing Role

The blue hat is the control and organization of the thought process, it is above the other hats. This is the hat worn by people who run a meeting. When difficulties arise because the ideas do not appear, they can direct the activities towards the green hat. When contingency plans are needed they can direct them towards the black hat, etc.

ACTIVITY: The organization you work for: a chain of forty fishmongers across the country is analyzing a profound change in its business strategy. It would consist of closing all physical stores and only enabling "online" stores. Using the six thinking hats method, decide whether or not to believe this new marketing system. Detail for each hat the partial result of your analysis.

 In the next post I will detail the second part of the Creativity Techniques with which I will finish the presentation of the Introductory Principles of Creativity.

________________________________________

[1] Cultural works are considered from those produced jointly by the people -sayings, stories, romances, oral epics, songs or popular festivals- to the so-called artistic works -literary, music, philosophical or scientific works- with personal authorship.

[2] “…I perform duties that are defined, outside of myself and my actions, in law and customs. Even when they agree with my feelings and I internally feel their reality, this does not cease to be objective because it is not I who have created them, but I have received them through education [...] in the same way at birth we find already made all religious beliefs and practices, if they existed before, is that they exist outside of us…” (Durkheim, 1895, p.39).

 

de Bono, E. (1985). Six Thinking Hats: An Essential Approach to Business Management. Little, Brown, & Company. Boston, Mass. USA.

De la Torre, S. (1995). Creatividad Aplicada. Recursos para una formación creativa. Madrid, España: Editorial Escuela Española.

Durkheim, E. (1895-1988). Las reglas del método sociológico y otros escritos sobre filosofía de las ciencias sociales. Madrid, España: Alianza Editorial.

lunes, 19 de junio de 2023

Introduction to Creativity - Part 2

 

In this post I will continue to develop the Introductory Principles of Creativity.

Thematic index:

 1. The four “Ps” of creativity.

 1.1. People. Creative personalities, the importance of openness to new experiences. Levels of knowledge -codified and tacit-. Degree of internal motivation.

1.2. Processes. Stages of the creative process. Creativity as a novel formulation of problems. Divergent and convergent thinking.

1.3. Places. Environments favorable to creativity. creative organizations. creative cities.

1.4. Products. Characteristics and levels.

 

 1. The four “Ps” of creativity.

In this section I will analyze the four main components of creativity, called the four "Ps" of creativity: Products, Processes, People and Places -the latter involves the environments, from social to organizational, that best promote the development of creativity-.

 

1.1. People.

In this section I will present the characteristics of creative people, with the treatment of the following three topics:

• Creative personalities. Importance of openness to new experiences.

• Levels of knowledge -codified and tacit-.

• Degree of internal motivation.

 

Creative personalities. Importance of openness to new experiences.

Since the 1950s, a large number of studies have been carried out to define the personality characteristics of creative individuals. Within them I highlight the research carried out by Gowan, Demos and Torrance, for them the personality traits of individuals who act freely and creatively are:

a. Curiosity and inquisitive spirit.

b. Originality of thought and action.

c. Independence of work and thought.

d. Fertile imagination; nonconformity.

e. Capturing relationships unnoticed by others.

f. Fluency of words and actions.

g. Constancy in their actions.

h. Appreciation for complexity.

Given the amount of research conducted on this topic, conflicting solutions have been observed. For example, the one related to the degree of neurosis registered and the creativity of the person. For humanist psychologists like Abraham Maslow, mental balance is a requirement for self-realization and creativity. While for other authors, a greater degree of neurosis is a characteristic of creative artists. But, in turn, this greater degree of neurosis is not observable in creative persons from other areas, such as entrepreneurs or scientists.

Various analysts have compiled the research carried out on the subject, in order to establish the common characteristics present in the different works. According to the thematic review carried out by M. Romo, M.J. Sánchez-Ruiz and V. Alfonso-Benlliure (2017), openness to new experiences would be the most recurrent variable in research on creative personality profiles. People who are open to new experiences, value the novelties that "different people" bring - of ideas, of approaches, of socioeconomic levels, of gender, of race, etc. - are more accepting of risk and therefore handle themselves positively in situations of uncertainty.

Another characteristic of creative people is related to their level of knowledge.

 

Levels of knowledge -codified and tacit-.

The creative products with the highest degree of novelty and value, in general, are the result of the work of people, individually or in groups, who accumulate a high level of knowledge about the domain within which they make their proposal. This has given rise to the usual phrase of the need for "10,000 hours" of learning, related to an area, prior to beginning to generate new and useful contributions. Although for other authors that learning period should be longer (Simonton, D. 2000; Kaufman, S.C. and Kaufman, J.C. 2007). Theme that I have already detailed in the first post: The creative person: is it born, and/or is it made?. Let's also see a couple of additional comments regarding tacit knowledge.

The importance of tacit knowledge, related to accumulated experiences, to be creative was explained several decades ago by the American philosopher Charles Hartshorne, in his work "Participated creativity", where he expressed:

“…We share creative freedom with each other. The content of the present experience comes from other experiences, one's own from birth or earlier, and those of other people, not counting the animals on which I have experimented, including our own cells and creatures even further removed from us. Our own nature. Of what use could any man's creativity be, if his father and mother had not contributed their own unique experiences, if the thousands of writers, composers, actors, something of whose emotional or intellectual experience has infiltrated his experience, would they not have achieved their original works or if he had not had tens of thousands of conversations with people, each of whom, in whatever state, had something, never before felt by him, to communicate to him?..."

Regarding the issue of tacit knowledge, research that I have carried out following the arguments of Scitovsky (1976), Goldsmith and Hofacker (1991) and Witt (2001, 2016, 2017), allow me to assert that consumers specialized in the demand for certain goods -that is, they have accumulated tacit knowledge in their consumption- are the ones who show the greatest predisposition to the incorporation of new products in the sector of their preferences.

On the other hand, from artistic creativity, let's see the importance of copying as a learning method: “…In the work of Alberto Giacometti, copying is a constant activity, as first as his training and as essential as his work from nature. Of the hundreds of copies inventoried, Giacometti and the Italian critic Luigi Carluccio selected 144 for the book ´Le copie dal passato´ (posthumous publication Turin, Boltero, 1967)…Where the painter and sculptor expresses: ´…At that precise moment I I see simultaneously in all my past […] all the art of the past, of all times, of all civilizations, arises before me, everything is simultaneous, as if space took the place of time […] the memories of the works of art are mixed with affective memories, with my own work with my whole life…´.

The challenge of copying is that of all of Giacometti's creations: to represent reality as he sees it '...one might think that realism consists in copying...a glass as it is on the table. In reality, you only copy what you have at each moment, the image that becomes consciousness...'. Mapfre Foundation. Madrid. Spain. Recoletos Room. Exhibition: Derain, Balthus, Giacometti. A friendship between artists. 2018.

The third element that characterizes creative people is their high internal motivation:

 Degree of internal motivation.

Creative processes are not linear sequences, they present advances and setbacks, since when venturing into unknown territories the chances of error increase. This leads to review and rectification processes in the development of the novelty. Errors, delays and criticism, although expected, can cause frustration for the author/authors during the creation process. Therefore, one of the characteristics of creative people is their resilience, which would derive from their high level of psychological balance and internal motivation.

 In this regard, Teresa Amabile (1996) states that the probability that a person is creative increases with the interaction of three factors:

a. Knowledge and experience in the subject.

b. Knowledge and management of some of the creativity techniques.

c. Internal motivation that he considers more relevant than external motivation.

Internal motivation reflects the desire to transcend through creative action, and the personal satisfaction derived from a well-done task, which allows us to overcome external pressures, questions and the chances of failure.

An example of internal motivation for the development of artistic creativity is the story of the French writer Marcel Proust (1871-1922). Between the years 1908 and 1922 this author devoted all his time exclusively to writing his monumental novel "In Search of Lost Time". For fourteen years, he practically did not leave his apartment in the center of Paris to continuously write his novel. He slept during the day and worked every night on his writing in his bedroom. Room to which it covered its walls in order not to be disturbed by outside noise.

This work was published in seven volumes. When he presents the first of them, to the publishers, they reject it and it was only published when the author himself paid for its edition. Likewise, he continued with the writing of his novel, which today is considered among the three best books published in the 20th century.

 

1.2. Processes.

Stages of the creative process.

John Dewey and Graham Wallas, as I expressed in the previous post, were the first authors to describe the stages of the creative process.

What can be observed in reality is that the sequence of steps is not linear at all, it is a complex process, where continuous progress, setbacks and feedback are observed. Given these restrictions, I will propose three phases that the creative processes could follow:

• A first stage of approach to the problem.

a. Opening phase and search for alternative solutions, research and work stage, related to divergent or lateral thinking.

b. Closing stage, related to convergent thinking, which consists of choosing the proposals whose results are most innovative and valuable – as well as technically and budgetarily feasible for the state of the organization at that time.

Creativity as a novel formulation of problems.

The researcher Manuela Romo (2012) explains that creativity is characterized by being a way of thinking that looks for problems -rather than avoiding them- to give them original solutions. The problem formulation process can be executed by formulating original questions, which can be started as follows: How are we going to do to…?

As a consequence of the existence of an unresolved and/or improvable situation in any sense, from environmental deterioration problems to world hunger; to the design of a new clothing collection, a creative process is given rise. The initial "question" that triggers it can be the search for a solution to an existing problem or, even more original, to find new problems.

According to Guilford and Hoepfner, sensitivity to problems would be a characteristic of the creative personality in this regard, he explains that: “…creative aptitudes are defined in relation to problem solving. Problem sensitivity is a general perceptual attitude that enables individuals to notice the unusual, the bizarre, the apparent inconsistencies. Such a disposition offers the individual numerous problems to solve..." (Guilford, J.P. and Hoepfner, R., 1971).

The action of initiating creative processes by posing problems -existing or new- applies to scientific, technological, business issues, and artistic creativity processes. J. Getzel and M. Csíkszentmihályi (1976) consider that creativity implies sensitivity to previously unformulated tensions and the ability to express them as new problems that can be solved. Referring in particular to artistic creativity, they propose a process of five stages: 1) experiencing a conflict in perception, emotion or thought, 2) formulating a problem articulating the previously unarticulated conflict, 3) expressing the problem in a visual way, 4) succeed in conflict resolution through symbolic meanings and 5) achieve a new cognitive and emotional balance. The interesting thing that the authors highlight is that in their research, artistic success was strongly related to the stage of the process of finding problems, and they assume that knowing how to pose [1] and finding new problems will probably become one of the issues central to creativity in general…”

"...All creative activity at any level can be considered the solution to a problem..." J. A. Marina and E. Marina (2013). Troubleshooting is done in two ways. The first analog, which follows a strict sequence of steps. Secondly, the heuristic[2] that proposes inventive informal methods to find the solution. This type of resolution is what characterizes creative processes.

Now, heuristics consists of two stages: the divergent thought process and the convergent thought process. After the problem statement phase, we continue with the stages of divergent thinking -open possibilities- and convergent thinking -close reaching results-.

 Divergent and convergent thinking.

In the creative process both types of thought must act together. Creative methods seek to develop processes to solve problems with the following sequence: first opening of possibilities, related to divergent thinking. Secondly, closing with the solution, related to convergent thinking. It was the American psychologist J.P. Guilford who developed the concepts of divergent and convergent thinking, as contributions to the understanding of creative processes.

Divergent thinking

It is the thought that disagrees, that separates, that looks for alternatives or different possibilities.

Responds to the approach to the problem from different perspectives, looking for varied and alternative answers. This thought is related to the imagination, it is original, inventive and flexible. It uses different approaches and different possible knowledge.

The established assumptions are removed, the known schemes are disarticulated and the rigid positions are made more flexible.

These ideas are similar to the productive thinking of M. Wertheimer, to those elaborated by J. P. Guilford, to the lateral thinking of E. De Bono, or the so-called “thinking outside the box”.

 Convergent thinking

With convergent thinking, the ability we have to give the correct answer to a question is demonstrated, logically ordering the information and different options. This type of thinking is the one that is used in the problem closure stage, selecting among all the different alternatives generated by divergent thinking which one should finally be used to solve the initial approach. Solution that must also be technically and economically feasible.

 1.3. Places.

The third "P" of creativity refers to the place/s where we can develop it.

 Environments favorable to creativity.

We define square as the environment in which our different types of activities take place. In particular, we will refer to two types of fields: the organizations in which we carry out our professional work and the cities in which we live. There are other environments, such as the family, educational, virtual, etc. with great influence on our creative development, whose treatment exceeds the framework of the post.

 Creative organizations.

In terms of organizations, they have evolved from closed, vertical and authoritarian structures towards more open, democratic, participatory and networked forms. The current productive systems demand labor with increasing levels of training. The management of this human capital requires fluid dialogue, since their physical strength is not required, but their knowledge. Even so, in most organizations the best conditions for the creative participation of all its members are not evident. The conflict between the powers, the fear of failure and the culture of criticism persist as dominant.

The successful results of the most creative companies would pressure the remaining organizations to modify their structures in order to actively insert themselves in markets where the rate of change is increasingly increasing[3].

On the other hand, there are many productive sectors with a lower rate of technological variation that postpone the inclusion of creativity plans.

It should be noted that creative organizations are those that know how to maintain coordination, productivity and control in a dynamic environment that drives innovation processes. The benefits obtained are not only derived from the new products launched on the market and the innovative processes implemented, but also from the greater motivation and identification of its employees with the objectives of the institution.

The second area that I am going to analyze refers to the characteristics of urban areas that favor creativity.


Creative cities.

In developed economies, natural resources and physical capital have lost relative importance compared to the participation of human capital as a dynamic factor in economic growth. This is the approach of the creative economy whose characteristics are: “…I) it focuses its attention on the potential of human creativity as a wealth-generating resource…and II) it is made up of the productivity generated by large, medium and small cultural industries and creative, as well as non-industrial productivity areas such as fine arts or crafts, among many others…” Herrera Molina, E.; Bonilla-Estávez, H. and Molina-Prieto, L.F. (2013).

 “…Cultural and creative industries make up one of the most important segments within the field of 'hidden innovations' (Miles & Green, 2008). That is, innovative activities that are not detected or measured by the usual indicators and that are outside of innovation policies in the different countries in which they are formulated, but that in different contexts, especially in large urban agglomerations, they can exceed the size and economic contribution of technological innovations that come from scientific research and technological development..." (Gallarraga Ezponda, A., Luna García, A., González Durán, S., 2013, p.39)

Below I will present the definitions of industries and creative economies, according to UNCTAD (2022).

“…The term `creative industries` has been in use since the 1990s, when the United Kingdom government attempted to define and analyse the direct impact of creative industries on the British economy (Newbigin, 2014). Looking closely at the creative industries, it can include a multitude of industries: advertising, architecture, arts and crafts, design, fashion, film, video, photography, music, performing arts, publishing, electronic publishing, research and development, software, computer games, and television and radio, which are the lifeblood of the creative economy. These industries create employment and promote innovation. On the other hand, they produce a series of non-economic benefits by maintaining and promoting cultural and artistic values that contribute to societies’ well-being.

 

The concept of `creative economy` was later developed in 2001 by John Howkins (Howkins, 2001). Creativity, according to Howkins, is about using an idea to generate another idea, an endless cognitive and emotional process of creation, exploration, and innovation. The creative economy comprises all the interconnected creative industries. Governments around the world started to recognise creative industries, with their emphasis on innovation, as much more inclusive concept of a wider creative economy (British Council, 2010).

 

Taking into account the above and the UNCTAD mandate as of the focal point of the United Nations system for the integrated treatment of trade and development, UNCTAD’s definition of creative industries and the creative economy can be summarized as follows.

Creative industries:

• are the cycles of creation, production and distribution of goods and services that use creativity and intellectual capital as primary inputs;

• constitute a set of knowledge-based activities, focused on but not limited to culture and heritage, potentially generating revenues from trade and intellectual property rights;

• comprise tangible products and intangible intellectual or artistic services with creative content, economic value and market objectives; and

• stand at the crossroads of the artisan, services and industrial sectors;

• are at the heart of the creative economy.

 The creative economy:

• is an evolving concept based on creative assets potentially generating economic growth and development;

• fosters income generation, job creation and export earnings while promoting social inclusion, cultural diversity and human development;

• embraces economic, cultural and social aspects interacting with technology, intellectual property and tourism objectives;

• is a set of knowledge-based economic activities with a development dimension and cross-cutting linkages at macro and micro levels to the overall economy;

• is a feasible development option calling for innovative, multidisciplinary policy responses and inter-ministerial action.

The concept of the creative economy is evolving and all industries involve some level of creativity and innovation…”

 

Within the developed economies, the creative industries maintain a trend of positive growth and greater demand for specialized labor [4]. Cities can develop policies to generate more attractive environments and attract this type of industry. Richard Florida, has analyzed which cities generate a more attractive environment for the creative economy. In this regard, indicators were developed, among which the "three T" stands out. The most creative cities are those that show high levels of Talent, Technology and Tolerance. The characteristics of the environments from the nuclear, organizational and social level show the impact that it will have on the degree of creativity of the individuals that belong to them.

 

1.4. Products.

 Characteristics and levels.

As I have explained in the definition of creativity, creative processes understood as the ability to produce something -whatever its nature- must conclude in a result: a physical object, a scientific theory, a technological proposal, a work of art, etc These creative products must meet two necessary conditions: be innovative and valuable. A novel product is difficult to predict and repeat, therefore it differs markedly from those existing in the market, and causes surprise among potential applicants. The creative product must also meet the condition of being valuable in terms of its function as a response to a concern of an individual, organization, or society.

Below I present different proposals to measure the creative dimension of the product.

Margaret Boden in her book "The creative Mind" (1990) differentiates between:

• P-creativity or psychological creativity, its influence is circumscribed to the daily life and immediate environment of a person. It involves the emergence of an amazing and valuable idea that is new to the person who has it, no matter how many may have had it before.

• The H-creativity or historical creativity, produces changes in our culture, we can say that the idea is new for humanity. It is an idea that no person has had before or, at least, there is no record of it. It is considered a particular case of P-creativity.

Mihály Csíkszentmihályi proposes that creativity originates as a result of the interaction between an individual's thinking and their sociocultural environment. The author identifies three components participating in the process: the domain, the person and the scope, defined as:

a. Domain or culture that is the set of symbolic rules.

b. Person, who brings something new to the symbolic field.

c. Scope, or group of experts who analyze and validate the creative idea.

In this way, he makes a differentiation between creativity with a small c and Creativity with a capital C [5].

• The c-creativity, is expressed in daily events when a person generates a product –in the broad sense- that is useful and innovative in its closest environment. Therefore, by not modifying a domain, it does not require the evaluation of the scope.

• The C-Creativity, is the one that generates a significant contribution in a domain –environment-, and that constitutes a cultural evolution when considering this contribution as a change to the existing memes in the culture, becoming a new meme. Since the change in the memes of a culture widely exceeds the individual space, it requires its validation by the experts -field- in said domain.

The assessment of the level of novelty of the creative results, according to M. Csíkszentmihályi, is carried out within the scope of the experts. An individual -or group of individuals, eg scientific research team, organizational creativity group-, generates a creative proposal in a certain domain -eg. in neuroeconomics, or in wood carvings-, within this domain there is a field of experts -from science academies to art critics- who analyze the degree of novelty and value that said creative product presents. A product will be creative when it is recognized by society as a valuable product; as long as this does not happen, it will only be an original product.

 

Csikszentmihalyi explains that: “…If by creativity we understand an idea or action that is new and valuable, we cannot simply accept a person's story as a criterion of their existence. There is no way to know if a thought is new except by reference to some criteria, and it is not possible to tell if it is valuable until it passes social evaluation. Therefore, creativity does not occur inside people's heads, but in the interaction between a person's thoughts and a socio-cultural context. It is a systemic phenomenon, rather than an individual one…” Csikszentmihalyi, 1996).

When a company creates a new product, who are the experts who determine its novelty and value? I consider that consumers specialized in this type of purchase.

In the next post I will continue with the third part of the Introductory Principles to Creativity, detailing the Techniques to develop creativity; which consists of two sections, first, the barriers and blocks to creativity and then, the creative techniques themselves.

 

[1] As Getzels expresses (1979):“Need problems be found? Is not the world already teeming with problems and dilemmas at home and in business, in economics and in education, in art and in science? The world is of course teeming with dilemmas. But the dilemmas do not present themselves automatically as problems capable of resolution or even sensible contemplation. They must be posed and formulated in fruitful and often radical ways if they are to be moved toward solution. The way the problem is posed is the way the dilemma will be resolved”.

 

[2] Heuristic: “…is a term that comes from the same root as Eureka! I found it!..." Marina, J.A. and Marina, E. (2013). Eureka is the well-known term expressed by Archimedes. In this regard, M. Wertheimer explains the history of this concept in the following way: “…Heron II, king of Syracuse and relative of Archimedes (287 BC-212 BC), required to know if the crown ordered from the local goldsmith was really made of pure gold. . The king warned Archimedes expressly not to damage the crown. Arquímedes took several detours around the problem, until one day, when he got into the bathtub, he came to solve the matter. According to what was perceived, he thought that the water that overflowed had to be equal to the volume of his body submerged in it, so, transferring the matter to Heron's crown, if he measured the water that overflowed when putting the crown, he would agree to know the volume of this, and immediately afterwards, he could compare it with the volume of a gold object that weighs the same as the crown. If the volumes were not equal, it would be proof that the crown was not made of pure gold. Excited by the discovery, he left the bathroom and ran naked to the palace, shouting: I found it! I found it! In Greek eurhka (Eureka) passes to posterity as the expression announcing the discovery. Archimedes managed to demonstrate that the crown had a greater volume than a gold object with the same weight, it contained silver, a metal with a lower density than gold..." Max Wertheimer, lesson given in 1924 at the Kantian Society in Berlin.

 

[3] In an interview with Manuela Romo, the following question was asked: Is it possible to systematically apply creativity to value creation processes in the company?

Not only is it possible and it can be done, but it must be done. We are in the era of knowledge and, with what I have just said, it is understood that innovation and creativity are emerging values, the need for which is almost a matter of survival. In the world we live in, where changes are dizzying and global, society, through education, must promote minds that are open to novelty, critical, flexible to face changes and productive to also contribute novelty and change.

But, as you say in the question, the application has to be systematic. A weekend course, more or less playful, where we put on hats to think in different ways, is not enough... Innovation management implies a much deeper change, it requires horizontal structures, not hierarchical ones where information flows freely, multidisciplinary teams that facilitate diverse approaches and new points of view, in addition to other more profound changes in organizations, such as losing fear of innovation, which means -it is true- risk, uncertainty, chance, chaos, crisis, ... but necessary to innovate and improve processes, products, services and work environment.

Creativity in the company, as in the educational center, will not occur until two fundamental principles are met: freedom and psychological security. The first so that the person is not restricted when proposing suggestions, ideas or raising problems and, the second, to have enough confidence to guarantee that freedom of thought without implying negative consequences on a personal or work level. There are more and more examples of companies that subscribe to these principles, thereby increasing their competitiveness.

Interview with Manuela Romo Madri+d Magazine Nº 27.

https://www.madrimasd.org/revista/revista27/quien/quien_es_quien2.asp

 

[4] For some cities, the creative industries are the future, and the heavy industry the past. As it is explain in a paper of Unesco (2019): ”‘FROM HEAVY INDUSTRY TO CREATIVE INDUSTRIES’. Across the world, creativity offers strategic paths for cities to develop more inclusive and ustainable economic growth patterns. In post-industrial situations, the creative sector drives conversion to new economic ecosystems, focused on knowledge and innovation. Jobs created in the sector are often more embedded in local economies, less vulnerable to relocation in a global context and more conducive to social inclusion. Examples of creative hubs directly contributing to regeneration in deprived urban areas and supporting their most vulnerable communities are numerous. More generally, the creative sector’s booming development speaks to contemporary reflections on visions of growth and work. As societies are called upon to reform drastically their production and consumption patterns to address overwhelming environmental concerns, how can we rethink the purpose and modalities of economic growth while placing people at the centre of development?”

 

[5] Derived from this model, other variants have been generated. For example, the model of the Four "C" of creativity that begins with the "mini c", which is the creative application in a specific domain of the new knowledge acquired. For example: in drawing class they teach the technique of shading. It is requested to carry out as a task a drawing applying that new knowledge. This creative work is a “mini c”. The subsequent drawings that you make at home improving this technique will be in the field of "c girl". If over time the person becomes a professional painter, they will be able to reach the “professional C”. Finally, the “capital C” is verified only when the contribution generates a change in the field of that specialty, such as Cézanne's work in modern art. Helfand, M.; Kaufman, JC.; Beghetto, R.A. (2016).

 

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