In this post I will continue to develop the Introductory Principles of Creativity.
Thematic index:
1. The four “Ps” of creativity.
1.1. People. Creative personalities, the importance of openness to new experiences. Levels of knowledge -codified and tacit-. Degree of internal motivation.
1.2. Processes. Stages of the creative process. Creativity as a novel formulation of problems. Divergent and convergent thinking.
1.3. Places. Environments favorable to creativity. creative organizations. creative cities.
1.4. Products. Characteristics and levels.
1. The four “Ps” of creativity.
In this section I will analyze the four main components of creativity, called the four "Ps" of creativity: Products, Processes, People and Places -the latter involves the environments, from social to organizational, that best promote the development of creativity-.
1.1. People.
In this section I will present the characteristics of creative people, with the treatment of the following three topics:
• Creative personalities. Importance of openness to new experiences.
• Levels of knowledge -codified and tacit-.
• Degree of internal motivation.
Creative personalities. Importance of openness to new experiences.
Since the 1950s, a large number of studies have been carried out to define the personality characteristics of creative individuals. Within them I highlight the research carried out by Gowan, Demos and Torrance, for them the personality traits of individuals who act freely and creatively are:
a. Curiosity and inquisitive spirit.
b. Originality of thought and action.
c. Independence of work and thought.
d. Fertile imagination; nonconformity.
e. Capturing relationships unnoticed by others.
f. Fluency of words and actions.
g. Constancy in their actions.
h. Appreciation for complexity.
Given the amount of research conducted on this topic, conflicting solutions have been observed. For example, the one related to the degree of neurosis registered and the creativity of the person. For humanist psychologists like Abraham Maslow, mental balance is a requirement for self-realization and creativity. While for other authors, a greater degree of neurosis is a characteristic of creative artists. But, in turn, this greater degree of neurosis is not observable in creative persons from other areas, such as entrepreneurs or scientists.
Various analysts have compiled the research carried out on the subject, in order to establish the common characteristics present in the different works. According to the thematic review carried out by M. Romo, M.J. Sánchez-Ruiz and V. Alfonso-Benlliure (2017), openness to new experiences would be the most recurrent variable in research on creative personality profiles. People who are open to new experiences, value the novelties that "different people" bring - of ideas, of approaches, of socioeconomic levels, of gender, of race, etc. - are more accepting of risk and therefore handle themselves positively in situations of uncertainty.
Another characteristic of creative people is related to their level of knowledge.
Levels of knowledge -codified and tacit-.
The creative products with the highest degree of novelty and value, in general, are the result of the work of people, individually or in groups, who accumulate a high level of knowledge about the domain within which they make their proposal. This has given rise to the usual phrase of the need for "10,000 hours" of learning, related to an area, prior to beginning to generate new and useful contributions. Although for other authors that learning period should be longer (Simonton, D. 2000; Kaufman, S.C. and Kaufman, J.C. 2007). Theme that I have already detailed in the first post: The creative person: is it born, and/or is it made?. Let's also see a couple of additional comments regarding tacit knowledge.
The importance of tacit knowledge, related to accumulated experiences, to be creative was explained several decades ago by the American philosopher Charles Hartshorne, in his work "Participated creativity", where he expressed:
“…We share creative freedom with each other. The content of the present experience comes from other experiences, one's own from birth or earlier, and those of other people, not counting the animals on which I have experimented, including our own cells and creatures even further removed from us. Our own nature. Of what use could any man's creativity be, if his father and mother had not contributed their own unique experiences, if the thousands of writers, composers, actors, something of whose emotional or intellectual experience has infiltrated his experience, would they not have achieved their original works or if he had not had tens of thousands of conversations with people, each of whom, in whatever state, had something, never before felt by him, to communicate to him?..."
Regarding the issue of tacit knowledge, research that I have carried out following the arguments of Scitovsky (1976), Goldsmith and Hofacker (1991) and Witt (2001, 2016, 2017), allow me to assert that consumers specialized in the demand for certain goods -that is, they have accumulated tacit knowledge in their consumption- are the ones who show the greatest predisposition to the incorporation of new products in the sector of their preferences.
On the other hand, from artistic creativity, let's see the importance of copying as a learning method: “…In the work of Alberto Giacometti, copying is a constant activity, as first as his training and as essential as his work from nature. Of the hundreds of copies inventoried, Giacometti and the Italian critic Luigi Carluccio selected 144 for the book ´Le copie dal passato´ (posthumous publication Turin, Boltero, 1967)…Where the painter and sculptor expresses: ´…At that precise moment I I see simultaneously in all my past […] all the art of the past, of all times, of all civilizations, arises before me, everything is simultaneous, as if space took the place of time […] the memories of the works of art are mixed with affective memories, with my own work with my whole life…´.
The challenge of copying is that of all of Giacometti's creations: to represent reality as he sees it '...one might think that realism consists in copying...a glass as it is on the table. In reality, you only copy what you have at each moment, the image that becomes consciousness...'. Mapfre Foundation. Madrid. Spain. Recoletos Room. Exhibition: Derain, Balthus, Giacometti. A friendship between artists. 2018.
The third element that characterizes creative people is their high internal motivation:
Degree of internal motivation.
Creative processes are not linear sequences, they present advances and setbacks, since when venturing into unknown territories the chances of error increase. This leads to review and rectification processes in the development of the novelty. Errors, delays and criticism, although expected, can cause frustration for the author/authors during the creation process. Therefore, one of the characteristics of creative people is their resilience, which would derive from their high level of psychological balance and internal motivation.
In this regard, Teresa Amabile (1996) states that the probability that a person is creative increases with the interaction of three factors:
a. Knowledge and experience in the subject.
b. Knowledge and management of some of the creativity techniques.
c. Internal motivation that he considers more relevant than external motivation.
Internal motivation reflects the desire to transcend through creative action, and the personal satisfaction derived from a well-done task, which allows us to overcome external pressures, questions and the chances of failure.
An example of internal motivation for the development of artistic creativity is the story of the French writer Marcel Proust (1871-1922). Between the years 1908 and 1922 this author devoted all his time exclusively to writing his monumental novel "In Search of Lost Time". For fourteen years, he practically did not leave his apartment in the center of Paris to continuously write his novel. He slept during the day and worked every night on his writing in his bedroom. Room to which it covered its walls in order not to be disturbed by outside noise.
This work was published in seven volumes. When he presents the first of them, to the publishers, they reject it and it was only published when the author himself paid for its edition. Likewise, he continued with the writing of his novel, which today is considered among the three best books published in the 20th century.
1.2. Processes.
Stages of the creative process.
John Dewey and Graham Wallas, as I expressed in the previous post, were the first authors to describe the stages of the creative process.
What can be observed in reality is that the sequence of steps is not linear at all, it is a complex process, where continuous progress, setbacks and feedback are observed. Given these restrictions, I will propose three phases that the creative processes could follow:
• A first stage of approach to the problem.
a. Opening phase and search for alternative solutions, research and work stage, related to divergent or lateral thinking.
b. Closing stage, related to convergent thinking, which consists of choosing the proposals whose results are most innovative and valuable – as well as technically and budgetarily feasible for the state of the organization at that time.
Creativity as a novel formulation of problems.
The researcher Manuela Romo (2012) explains that creativity is characterized by being a way of thinking that looks for problems -rather than avoiding them- to give them original solutions. The problem formulation process can be executed by formulating original questions, which can be started as follows: How are we going to do to…?
As a consequence of the existence of an unresolved and/or improvable situation in any sense, from environmental deterioration problems to world hunger; to the design of a new clothing collection, a creative process is given rise. The initial "question" that triggers it can be the search for a solution to an existing problem or, even more original, to find new problems.
According to Guilford and Hoepfner, sensitivity to problems would be a characteristic of the creative personality in this regard, he explains that: “…creative aptitudes are defined in relation to problem solving. Problem sensitivity is a general perceptual attitude that enables individuals to notice the unusual, the bizarre, the apparent inconsistencies. Such a disposition offers the individual numerous problems to solve..." (Guilford, J.P. and Hoepfner, R., 1971).
The action of initiating creative processes by posing problems -existing or new- applies to scientific, technological, business issues, and artistic creativity processes. J. Getzel and M. Csíkszentmihályi (1976) consider that creativity implies sensitivity to previously unformulated tensions and the ability to express them as new problems that can be solved. Referring in particular to artistic creativity, they propose a process of five stages: 1) experiencing a conflict in perception, emotion or thought, 2) formulating a problem articulating the previously unarticulated conflict, 3) expressing the problem in a visual way, 4) succeed in conflict resolution through symbolic meanings and 5) achieve a new cognitive and emotional balance. The interesting thing that the authors highlight is that in their research, artistic success was strongly related to the stage of the process of finding problems, and they assume that knowing how to pose [1] and finding new problems will probably become one of the issues central to creativity in general…”
"...All creative activity at any level can be considered the solution to a problem..." J. A. Marina and E. Marina (2013). Troubleshooting is done in two ways. The first analog, which follows a strict sequence of steps. Secondly, the heuristic[2] that proposes inventive informal methods to find the solution. This type of resolution is what characterizes creative processes.
Now, heuristics consists of two stages: the divergent thought process and the convergent thought process. After the problem statement phase, we continue with the stages of divergent thinking -open possibilities- and convergent thinking -close reaching results-.
Divergent and convergent thinking.
In the creative process both types of thought must act together. Creative methods seek to develop processes to solve problems with the following sequence: first opening of possibilities, related to divergent thinking. Secondly, closing with the solution, related to convergent thinking. It was the American psychologist J.P. Guilford who developed the concepts of divergent and convergent thinking, as contributions to the understanding of creative processes.
Divergent thinking
It is the thought that disagrees, that separates, that looks for alternatives or different possibilities.
Responds to the approach to the problem from different perspectives, looking for varied and alternative answers. This thought is related to the imagination, it is original, inventive and flexible. It uses different approaches and different possible knowledge.
The established assumptions are removed, the known schemes are disarticulated and the rigid positions are made more flexible.
These ideas are similar to the productive thinking of M. Wertheimer, to those elaborated by J. P. Guilford, to the lateral thinking of E. De Bono, or the so-called “thinking outside the box”.
Convergent thinking
With convergent thinking, the ability we have to give the correct answer to a question is demonstrated, logically ordering the information and different options. This type of thinking is the one that is used in the problem closure stage, selecting among all the different alternatives generated by divergent thinking which one should finally be used to solve the initial approach. Solution that must also be technically and economically feasible.
1.3. Places.
The third "P" of creativity refers to the place/s where we can develop it.
Environments favorable to creativity.
We define square as the environment in which our different types of activities take place. In particular, we will refer to two types of fields: the organizations in which we carry out our professional work and the cities in which we live. There are other environments, such as the family, educational, virtual, etc. with great influence on our creative development, whose treatment exceeds the framework of the post.
Creative organizations.
In terms of organizations, they have evolved from closed, vertical and authoritarian structures towards more open, democratic, participatory and networked forms. The current productive systems demand labor with increasing levels of training. The management of this human capital requires fluid dialogue, since their physical strength is not required, but their knowledge. Even so, in most organizations the best conditions for the creative participation of all its members are not evident. The conflict between the powers, the fear of failure and the culture of criticism persist as dominant.
The successful results of the most creative companies would pressure the remaining organizations to modify their structures in order to actively insert themselves in markets where the rate of change is increasingly increasing[3].
On the other hand, there are many productive sectors with a lower rate of technological variation that postpone the inclusion of creativity plans.
It should be noted that creative organizations are those that know how to maintain coordination, productivity and control in a dynamic environment that drives innovation processes. The benefits obtained are not only derived from the new products launched on the market and the innovative processes implemented, but also from the greater motivation and identification of its employees with the objectives of the institution.
The second area that I am going to analyze refers to the characteristics of urban areas that favor creativity.
Creative cities.
In developed economies, natural resources and physical capital have lost relative importance compared to the participation of human capital as a dynamic factor in economic growth. This is the approach of the creative economy whose characteristics are: “…I) it focuses its attention on the potential of human creativity as a wealth-generating resource…and II) it is made up of the productivity generated by large, medium and small cultural industries and creative, as well as non-industrial productivity areas such as fine arts or crafts, among many others…” Herrera Molina, E.; Bonilla-Estávez, H. and Molina-Prieto, L.F. (2013).
“…Cultural and creative industries make up one of the most important segments within the field of 'hidden innovations' (Miles & Green, 2008). That is, innovative activities that are not detected or measured by the usual indicators and that are outside of innovation policies in the different countries in which they are formulated, but that in different contexts, especially in large urban agglomerations, they can exceed the size and economic contribution of technological innovations that come from scientific research and technological development..." (Gallarraga Ezponda, A., Luna García, A., González Durán, S., 2013, p.39)
Below I will present the definitions of industries and creative economies, according to UNCTAD (2022).
“…The term `creative industries` has been in use since the 1990s, when the United Kingdom government attempted to define and analyse the direct impact of creative industries on the British economy (Newbigin, 2014). Looking closely at the creative industries, it can include a multitude of industries: advertising, architecture, arts and crafts, design, fashion, film, video, photography, music, performing arts, publishing, electronic publishing, research and development, software, computer games, and television and radio, which are the lifeblood of the creative economy. These industries create employment and promote innovation. On the other hand, they produce a series of non-economic benefits by maintaining and promoting cultural and artistic values that contribute to societies’ well-being.
The concept of `creative economy` was later developed in 2001 by John Howkins (Howkins, 2001). Creativity, according to Howkins, is about using an idea to generate another idea, an endless cognitive and emotional process of creation, exploration, and innovation. The creative economy comprises all the interconnected creative industries. Governments around the world started to recognise creative industries, with their emphasis on innovation, as much more inclusive concept of a wider creative economy (British Council, 2010).
Taking into account the above and the UNCTAD mandate as of the focal point of the United Nations system for the integrated treatment of trade and development, UNCTAD’s definition of creative industries and the creative economy can be summarized as follows.
Creative industries:
• are the cycles of creation, production and distribution of goods and services that use creativity and intellectual capital as primary inputs;
• constitute a set of knowledge-based activities, focused on but not limited to culture and heritage, potentially generating revenues from trade and intellectual property rights;
• comprise tangible products and intangible intellectual or artistic services with creative content, economic value and market objectives; and
• stand at the crossroads of the artisan, services and industrial sectors;
• are at the heart of the creative economy.
The creative economy:
• is an evolving concept based on creative assets potentially generating economic growth and development;
• fosters income generation, job creation and export earnings while promoting social inclusion, cultural diversity and human development;
• embraces economic, cultural and social aspects interacting with technology, intellectual property and tourism objectives;
• is a set of knowledge-based economic activities with a development dimension and cross-cutting linkages at macro and micro levels to the overall economy;
• is a feasible development option calling for innovative, multidisciplinary policy responses and inter-ministerial action.
The concept of the creative economy is evolving and all industries involve some level of creativity and innovation…”
Within the developed economies, the creative industries maintain a trend of positive growth and greater demand for specialized labor [4]. Cities can develop policies to generate more attractive environments and attract this type of industry. Richard Florida, has analyzed which cities generate a more attractive environment for the creative economy. In this regard, indicators were developed, among which the "three T" stands out. The most creative cities are those that show high levels of Talent, Technology and Tolerance. The characteristics of the environments from the nuclear, organizational and social level show the impact that it will have on the degree of creativity of the individuals that belong to them.
1.4. Products.
Characteristics and levels.
As I have explained in the definition of creativity, creative processes understood as the ability to produce something -whatever its nature- must conclude in a result: a physical object, a scientific theory, a technological proposal, a work of art, etc These creative products must meet two necessary conditions: be innovative and valuable. A novel product is difficult to predict and repeat, therefore it differs markedly from those existing in the market, and causes surprise among potential applicants. The creative product must also meet the condition of being valuable in terms of its function as a response to a concern of an individual, organization, or society.
Below I present different proposals to measure the creative dimension of the product.
Margaret Boden in her book "The creative Mind" (1990) differentiates between:
• P-creativity or psychological creativity, its influence is circumscribed to the daily life and immediate environment of a person. It involves the emergence of an amazing and valuable idea that is new to the person who has it, no matter how many may have had it before.
• The H-creativity or historical creativity, produces changes in our culture, we can say that the idea is new for humanity. It is an idea that no person has had before or, at least, there is no record of it. It is considered a particular case of P-creativity.
Mihály Csíkszentmihályi proposes that creativity originates as a result of the interaction between an individual's thinking and their sociocultural environment. The author identifies three components participating in the process: the domain, the person and the scope, defined as:
a. Domain or culture that is the set of symbolic rules.
b. Person, who brings something new to the symbolic field.
c. Scope, or group of experts who analyze and validate the creative idea.
In this way, he makes a differentiation between creativity with a small c and Creativity with a capital C [5].
• The c-creativity, is expressed in daily events when a person generates a product –in the broad sense- that is useful and innovative in its closest environment. Therefore, by not modifying a domain, it does not require the evaluation of the scope.
• The C-Creativity, is the one that generates a significant contribution in a domain –environment-, and that constitutes a cultural evolution when considering this contribution as a change to the existing memes in the culture, becoming a new meme. Since the change in the memes of a culture widely exceeds the individual space, it requires its validation by the experts -field- in said domain.
The assessment of the level of novelty of the creative results, according to M. Csíkszentmihályi, is carried out within the scope of the experts. An individual -or group of individuals, eg scientific research team, organizational creativity group-, generates a creative proposal in a certain domain -eg. in neuroeconomics, or in wood carvings-, within this domain there is a field of experts -from science academies to art critics- who analyze the degree of novelty and value that said creative product presents. A product will be creative when it is recognized by society as a valuable product; as long as this does not happen, it will only be an original product.
Csikszentmihalyi explains that: “…If by creativity we understand an idea or action that is new and valuable, we cannot simply accept a person's story as a criterion of their existence. There is no way to know if a thought is new except by reference to some criteria, and it is not possible to tell if it is valuable until it passes social evaluation. Therefore, creativity does not occur inside people's heads, but in the interaction between a person's thoughts and a socio-cultural context. It is a systemic phenomenon, rather than an individual one…” Csikszentmihalyi, 1996).
When a company creates a new product, who are the experts who determine its novelty and value? I consider that consumers specialized in this type of purchase.
In the next post I will continue with the third part of the Introductory Principles to Creativity, detailing the Techniques to develop creativity; which consists of two sections, first, the barriers and blocks to creativity and then, the creative techniques themselves.
[1] As Getzels expresses (1979):“Need problems be found? Is not the world already teeming with problems and dilemmas at home and in business, in economics and in education, in art and in science? The world is of course teeming with dilemmas. But the dilemmas do not present themselves automatically as problems capable of resolution or even sensible contemplation. They must be posed and formulated in fruitful and often radical ways if they are to be moved toward solution. The way the problem is posed is the way the dilemma will be resolved”.
[2] Heuristic: “…is a term that comes from the same root as Eureka! I found it!..." Marina, J.A. and Marina, E. (2013). Eureka is the well-known term expressed by Archimedes. In this regard, M. Wertheimer explains the history of this concept in the following way: “…Heron II, king of Syracuse and relative of Archimedes (287 BC-212 BC), required to know if the crown ordered from the local goldsmith was really made of pure gold. . The king warned Archimedes expressly not to damage the crown. Arquímedes took several detours around the problem, until one day, when he got into the bathtub, he came to solve the matter. According to what was perceived, he thought that the water that overflowed had to be equal to the volume of his body submerged in it, so, transferring the matter to Heron's crown, if he measured the water that overflowed when putting the crown, he would agree to know the volume of this, and immediately afterwards, he could compare it with the volume of a gold object that weighs the same as the crown. If the volumes were not equal, it would be proof that the crown was not made of pure gold. Excited by the discovery, he left the bathroom and ran naked to the palace, shouting: I found it! I found it! In Greek eurhka (Eureka) passes to posterity as the expression announcing the discovery. Archimedes managed to demonstrate that the crown had a greater volume than a gold object with the same weight, it contained silver, a metal with a lower density than gold..." Max Wertheimer, lesson given in 1924 at the Kantian Society in Berlin.
[3] In an interview with Manuela Romo, the following question was asked: Is it possible to systematically apply creativity to value creation processes in the company?
Not only is it possible and it can be done, but it must be done. We are in the era of knowledge and, with what I have just said, it is understood that innovation and creativity are emerging values, the need for which is almost a matter of survival. In the world we live in, where changes are dizzying and global, society, through education, must promote minds that are open to novelty, critical, flexible to face changes and productive to also contribute novelty and change.
But, as you say in the question, the application has to be systematic. A weekend course, more or less playful, where we put on hats to think in different ways, is not enough... Innovation management implies a much deeper change, it requires horizontal structures, not hierarchical ones where information flows freely, multidisciplinary teams that facilitate diverse approaches and new points of view, in addition to other more profound changes in organizations, such as losing fear of innovation, which means -it is true- risk, uncertainty, chance, chaos, crisis, ... but necessary to innovate and improve processes, products, services and work environment.
Creativity in the company, as in the educational center, will not occur until two fundamental principles are met: freedom and psychological security. The first so that the person is not restricted when proposing suggestions, ideas or raising problems and, the second, to have enough confidence to guarantee that freedom of thought without implying negative consequences on a personal or work level. There are more and more examples of companies that subscribe to these principles, thereby increasing their competitiveness.
Interview with Manuela Romo Madri+d Magazine Nº 27.
https://www.madrimasd.org/revista/revista27/quien/quien_es_quien2.asp
[4] For some cities, the creative industries are the future, and the heavy industry the past. As it is explain in a paper of Unesco (2019): ”‘FROM HEAVY INDUSTRY TO CREATIVE INDUSTRIES’. Across the world, creativity offers strategic paths for cities to develop more inclusive and ustainable economic growth patterns. In post-industrial situations, the creative sector drives conversion to new economic ecosystems, focused on knowledge and innovation. Jobs created in the sector are often more embedded in local economies, less vulnerable to relocation in a global context and more conducive to social inclusion. Examples of creative hubs directly contributing to regeneration in deprived urban areas and supporting their most vulnerable communities are numerous. More generally, the creative sector’s booming development speaks to contemporary reflections on visions of growth and work. As societies are called upon to reform drastically their production and consumption patterns to address overwhelming environmental concerns, how can we rethink the purpose and modalities of economic growth while placing people at the centre of development?”
[5] Derived from this model, other variants have been generated. For example, the model of the Four "C" of creativity that begins with the "mini c", which is the creative application in a specific domain of the new knowledge acquired. For example: in drawing class they teach the technique of shading. It is requested to carry out as a task a drawing applying that new knowledge. This creative work is a “mini c”. The subsequent drawings that you make at home improving this technique will be in the field of "c girl". If over time the person becomes a professional painter, they will be able to reach the “professional C”. Finally, the “capital C” is verified only when the contribution generates a change in the field of that specialty, such as Cézanne's work in modern art. Helfand, M.; Kaufman, JC.; Beghetto, R.A. (2016).
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